Setting up the JDK

Introduction

Before writing larger Java applications, you need a proper Java development environment. This includes installing the JDK (Java Development Kit), configuring your system, and choosing a suitable code editor or IDE.

In this lecture, you will learn how to install Java correctly, verify the installation, and prepare your machine for Java development.

What is the JDK?

The Java Development Kit (JDK) is the complete package required to create, compile, and run Java applications.

The JDK includes:

• JVM (Java Virtual Machine) → Executes Java bytecode.
• JRE (Java Runtime Environment) → Provides libraries required to run programs.
• Java Compiler (javac) → Converts Java source code into bytecode.
• Development Tools → Debuggers, documentation generators, and more.

Download & Install

Head to Eclipse Adoptium or Oracle JDK and download the appropriate bundle for your operating system.

Choose the installer version that matches your system architecture:

• Windows: Usually .msi or .exe
• macOS: Usually .pkg
• Linux: Usually .tar.gz or package manager installation

Installing on Windows

1. Download the JDK installer.
2. Run the installer and follow the setup wizard.
3. Allow the installer to configure environment variables if prompted.
4. Finish installation and restart your terminal.

Installing on macOS

1. Download the macOS package.
2. Open the installer package.
3. Follow the installation instructions.
4. Open Terminal and verify the installation.

Installing on Linux

Many Linux distributions provide OpenJDK through package managers.

sudo apt update
sudo apt install openjdk-21-jdk

Verify Installation

After installation, open your terminal or command prompt and run:

java -version
javac -version

Understanding PATH Variables

The PATH environment variable allows your operating system to locate Java commands such as java and javac from any terminal window.

If the terminal says:

'java' is not recognized as an internal or external command

then Java may not be correctly added to your system PATH.

IDE Recommendation

For a smoother learning experience, choose a Java IDE or code editor:

• IntelliJ IDEA Community – Rich refactoring, smart code completion, debugging, and Maven/Gradle integration.
• Eclipse – A classic Java IDE with extensive plugin support.
• VS Code – Lightweight editor with the Java Extension Pack.

Creating Your First Java Project

Once your IDE is installed:

1. Create a new Java project.
2. Create a new Java class named Main.
3. Add a main() method.
4. Run the program using the IDE's Run button.

public class Main {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        System.out.println("Java setup successful!");
    }
}

Command Line vs IDE

Beginners often wonder whether they should use the terminal or an IDE. Both are useful and important.

• Command Line: Helps understand how Java compilation works internally.
• IDE: Speeds up development with autocomplete, debugging, and project tools.

Common Installation Problems

• Installing only the JRE instead of the full JDK
• Incorrect PATH configuration
• Using an outdated Java version
• Multiple Java versions conflicting on the same system
• Restarting neither the terminal nor the computer after installation

Useful Java Commands

java -version     # Shows installed Java version
javac -version    # Shows Java compiler version
java Main         # Runs a compiled Java class
javac Main.java   # Compiles Java source code

java -version
javac -version

Summary

In this lecture, you learned how to install the Java Development Kit, verify your installation, configure the PATH variable, and choose an IDE for Java development.

You also explored the differences between JDK, JRE, and JVM, along with common installation mistakes beginners encounter.

In the next lecture, we will begin working with variables, data types, and user input in Java.

Variables & Data Types

Introduction

Variables are one of the most fundamental concepts in programming. A variable is simply a named storage location used to hold data in memory.

In Java, every variable must have a specific data type. The data type determines:

• What kind of data can be stored
• How much memory is allocated
• What operations can be performed on the value

Declaring Variables

In Java, variables are declared using the following syntax:

dataType variableName = value;

Example:

int age = 25;
double price = 99.99;
String name = "Alice";

Primitive Types

Java has 8 primitive data types. Primitive types store simple values directly in memory.

Integer Types

Integer types are used to store whole numbers without decimal points.

• byte → Small memory usage
• short → Slightly larger integers
• int → Most commonly used integer type
• long → Very large integer values

Floating-Point Types

Floating-point types are used to store decimal numbers.

• float → Less precision, uses less memory
• double → Higher precision, more commonly used

float value = 3.14f;
double pi = 3.1415926535;

Character Type

The char type stores a single Unicode character.

char grade = 'A';
char symbol = '#';

Boolean Type

The boolean type stores only two values: true or false.

boolean isLoggedIn = true;
boolean hasPermission = false;

Reference Types

Anything that is not a primitive type is called a reference type.

Reference types store memory addresses that point to objects.

Examples include:

• String
• Arrays
• Classes and objects
• Collections

Strings in Java

Strings are used to store text. In Java, strings are objects of the String class.

String city = "London";
String message = "Welcome to Java";

VariablesDemo.java

public class VariablesDemo {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        int age = 30;
        double price = 19.99;
        boolean isMember = true;
        String name = "Alice";

        System.out.println(name + ", age " + age);
    }
}

Type Conversion

Sometimes values must be converted from one data type to another.

Implicit Conversion

Java automatically converts smaller types into larger compatible types.

int num = 100;
double result = num;

Explicit Conversion (Casting)

Larger types can be manually converted into smaller types using casting.

double value = 9.78;
int result = (int) value;

Variable Naming Rules

• Variable names are case-sensitive.
• Names cannot start with numbers.
• Spaces are not allowed.
• Use meaningful names for readability.

int studentAge = 20;
double accountBalance = 1500.75;

Common Beginner Mistakes

• Using variables before initialization
• Assigning incorrect data types
• Forgetting quotes around strings
• Using single quotes for strings instead of double quotes
• Confusing = with ==

Summary

In this lecture, you learned about variables, primitive data types, reference types, type conversion, and variable naming rules.

Understanding data types is essential because every Java program relies heavily on storing and manipulating data correctly.

In the next lecture, we will explore operators and expressions in Java.

Control Flow

Introduction

Control flow determines how a program makes decisions and repeats tasks. Without control flow, Java programs would execute statements one after another without any logic or flexibility.

Using conditions and loops, programs can:

• Make decisions
• Repeat actions
• Handle different situations dynamically
• Process large amounts of data efficiently

Conditional Statements

Conditional statements allow programs to execute code only when certain conditions are true.

If / else

The if statement checks a condition. If the condition evaluates to true, the code block executes.

int score = 85;

if (score >= 90) {
    System.out.println("Grade A");
} else if (score >= 80) {
    System.out.println("Grade B");
} else {
    System.out.println("Needs improvement");
}

Understanding the Logic

• if → Executes when the first condition is true
• else if → Checks additional conditions
• else → Executes if none of the conditions are true

Nested If Statements

An if statement can exist inside another if statement. This is called nesting.

int age = 20;
boolean hasTicket = true;

if (age >= 18) {
    if (hasTicket) {
        System.out.println("Entry allowed");
    }
}

Comparison Operators

Conditions usually rely on comparison operators.

Logical Operators

Logical operators combine multiple conditions.

int age = 22;
boolean isStudent = true;

if (age >= 18 && isStudent) {
    System.out.println("Eligible for student discount");
}

Switch Statement

The switch statement is useful when comparing one value against multiple possible cases.

Switch (Java 17+ enhanced switch)

String day = "MONDAY";

String result = switch (day) {
    case "MONDAY", "TUESDAY", "WEDNESDAY" -> "Mid-week";
    case "THURSDAY", "FRIDAY" -> "Almost weekend";
    case "SATURDAY", "SUNDAY" -> "Weekend";
    default -> "Invalid day";
};

System.out.println(result);

Loops

Loops allow code to repeat automatically until a condition becomes false.

• for loop → Best for counting and fixed repetitions
• enhanced for loop → Best for arrays and collections
• while loop → Repeats while a condition is true
• do-while loop → Executes at least once before checking the condition

For Loop

for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) {
    System.out.println(i);
}

Enhanced For Loop

Enhanced for loops simplify iteration through arrays and collections.

int[] numbers = { 2, 4, 6, 8 };
int sum = 0;

for (int n : numbers) {
    sum += n;
}

System.out.println("Sum = " + sum);

While Loop

A while loop executes as long as its condition remains true.

int count = 1;

while (count <= 5) {
    System.out.println(count);
    count++;
}

Do-While Loop

A do-while loop executes the block first, then checks the condition.

int number = 1;

do {
    System.out.println(number);
    number++;
} while (number <= 3);

Break and Continue

Java provides special statements to control loop execution.

• break → Exits the loop immediately
• continue → Skips the current iteration

for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

    if (i == 5) {
        continue;
    }

    if (i == 8) {
        break;
    }

    System.out.println(i);
}

Common Beginner Mistakes

• Using = instead of == in conditions
• Creating infinite loops accidentally
• Forgetting curly braces in nested conditions
• Using incorrect loop conditions
• Confusing break and continue

Summary

In this lecture, you learned how Java programs make decisions and repeat tasks using conditions and loops.

You explored:

• if-else statements
• switch expressions
• for, while, and do-while loops
• break and continue statements

In the next lecture, we will begin working with methods and modular programming in Java.

Methods

Introduction

Methods are reusable blocks of code that perform specific tasks. They help organize programs into smaller, manageable pieces.

Instead of writing the same code repeatedly, developers create methods and call them whenever needed.

Why Methods Matter

• Reduce code duplication
• Improve readability
• Make debugging easier
• Encourage modular programming
• Allow code reuse across projects

Method Syntax

A method in Java consists of: modifiers returnType name(parameters) { body }

accessModifier returnType methodName(parameters) {

    // method body

}

Understanding Method Components

Creating Methods

public class MathUtils {

    public static int add(int a, int b) {
        return a + b;
    }

    public static double average(int[] values) {

        int sum = 0;

        for (int v : values) {
            sum += v;
        }

        return (double) sum / values.length;
    }
}

Calling Methods

Methods do nothing until they are called.

int result = MathUtils.add(5, 10);

System.out.println(result);

Return Values

Methods can return values back to the caller using the return keyword.

The return type determines what type of value the method sends back.

public static void greet() {
    System.out.println("Welcome!");
}

Method Parameters

Parameters allow methods to receive input values.

public static void displayName(String name) {

    System.out.println("Hello " + name);

}

Method Arguments vs Parameters

Parameter Passing

• Primitives are passed by value — the method receives a copy.
• Objects are passed by reference value — the method receives a copy of the reference, allowing it to modify the object.

Method Overloading

Method overloading allows multiple methods to share the same name but use different parameter lists.

Java identifies overloaded methods based on:

• Number of parameters
• Parameter types
• Order of parameters

public class OverloadDemo {

    static int max(int a, int b) {
        return (a > b) ? a : b;
    }

    static double max(double a, double b) {
        return (a > b) ? a : b;
    }
}

Recursive Methods

A recursive method is a method that calls itself.

Recursion is commonly used for mathematical problems, trees, and algorithms.

public static int factorial(int n) {

    if (n == 1) {
        return 1;
    }

    return n * factorial(n - 1);
}

Scope of Variables

Variables declared inside methods are called local variables.

They can only be accessed within that method.

public static void test() {

    int number = 10;

    System.out.println(number);
}

Main Method

Every Java application starts execution from the main() method.

public static void main(String[] args) {

    System.out.println("Program started");

}

Common Beginner Mistakes

• Forgetting the return statement
• Using the wrong return type
• Calling non-static methods incorrectly
• Passing incorrect arguments
• Creating recursive methods without a base case

Summary

In this lecture, you learned how methods help organize and reuse code in Java.

You explored:

• Method syntax
• Parameters and return values
• Method overloading
• Recursion
• Variable scope

Methods are one of the most important building blocks in Java programming. They are heavily used in every real-world application.

In the next lecture, we will begin learning Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) concepts in Java.

Object-Oriented Programming

Introduction

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of objects.

Objects combine both:

• Data → variables and fields
• Behavior → methods and actions

Java is primarily an object-oriented programming language, and most real-world Java applications are built using OOP principles.

Why OOP Matters

• Improves code organization
• Encourages code reuse
• Makes applications easier to maintain
• Supports scalable software development
• Helps teams collaborate efficiently

Core Pillars

• Encapsulation – hide internal state behind private fields and expose behaviour via methods.
• Inheritance – reuse code with extends.
• Polymorphism – treat objects of different subclasses uniformly, often via interfaces.
• Abstraction – define contracts with abstract classes or interfaces.

Classes and Objects

A class is a blueprint used to create objects.

An object is an instance of a class.

Class definition

public class Person {

    private String name;
    private int age;

    public Person(String name, int age) {

        this.name = name;
        this.age = age;

    }

    public String getName() {
        return name;
    }

    public int getAge() {
        return age;
    }

    public void birthday() {
        age++;
    }
}

Creating Objects

Objects are created using the new keyword.

Person person = new Person("Alice", 25);

System.out.println(person.getName());

Encapsulation

Encapsulation means hiding internal data and controlling access through methods.

In Java, this is commonly done using:

• private fields
• Getter methods
• Setter methods

Getter and Setter Methods

private double balance;

public double getBalance() {
    return balance;
}

public void setBalance(double value) {

    if (value >= 0) {
        balance = value;
    }
}

Constructors

Constructors are special methods used to initialize objects.

A constructor:

• Has the same name as the class
• Does not have a return type
• Runs automatically when an object is created

Inheritance

Inheritance allows one class to inherit properties and methods from another class.

The child class uses the extends keyword.

Inheritance example

public class Employee extends Person {

    private String department;

    public Employee(String name,
                    int age,
                    String dept) {

        super(name, age);

        department = dept;
    }

    public String getDepartment() {
        return department;
    }
}

The super Keyword

The super keyword refers to the parent class.

It is commonly used to:

• Call parent constructors
• Access parent methods
• Reuse inherited functionality

Method Overriding

Method overriding allows subclasses to provide their own implementation of inherited methods.

class Animal {

    void sound() {
        System.out.println("Animal sound");
    }
}

class Dog extends Animal {

    @Override
    void sound() {
        System.out.println("Bark");
    }
}

Polymorphism

Polymorphism allows one interface or parent class reference to represent many different object types.

Animal pet = new Dog();

pet.sound();

Abstraction

Abstraction focuses on hiding implementation details and showing only essential behavior.

Java supports abstraction using:

• Abstract classes
• Interfaces

Abstract Class Example

abstract class Shape {

    abstract double area();

}

Interface Example

interface Vehicle {

    void start();

}

Access Modifiers

Composition vs Inheritance

Inheritance represents an "is-a" relationship, while composition represents a "has-a" relationship.

Example:

• A Dog is an Animal → inheritance
• A Car has an Engine → composition

Common Beginner Mistakes

• Making everything public
• Confusing classes and objects
• Forgetting constructors
• Using inheritance unnecessarily
• Ignoring encapsulation principles

Summary

In this lecture, you explored the foundations of Object-Oriented Programming in Java.

You learned about:

• Classes and objects
• Encapsulation
• Inheritance
• Polymorphism
• Abstraction
• Constructors and access modifiers

OOP is one of the most important concepts in modern software development and is heavily used in enterprise Java applications, Android development, and backend systems.

In the next lecture, we will begin working with collections and advanced data handling in Java.

Collections Framework

Introduction to the Collections Framework

The Java Collections Framework is a powerful set of classes and interfaces used to store, organize, and manage groups of objects efficiently. Instead of manually creating arrays and complex data structures, Java provides ready-made implementations for common programming needs.

The framework includes dynamic lists, sets, maps, queues, iterators, sorting utilities, and algorithms that are optimized and widely used in real-world software development.

Why Collections?

They provide well-tested, efficient implementations of common data structures (lists, sets, maps) plus a rich set of utility methods.

• Dynamic sizing unlike fixed-size arrays
• Built-in algorithms for sorting and searching
• Improved code readability
• Reusable and optimized implementations
• Support for generics and type safety

Collection Hierarchy Overview

The Collections Framework is built using interfaces and classes.

Collection
 ├── List
 │    ├── ArrayList
 │    └── LinkedList
 │
 ├── Set
 │    ├── HashSet
 │    └── TreeSet
 │
 └── Queue
      └── PriorityQueue

Map
 ├── HashMap
 └── TreeMap

Different collection types are designed for different use cases.

Generics in Collections

Collections usually use Generics to specify the type of data they store.

ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<>();

This ensures type safety and prevents storing incorrect object types.

List – ordered, duplicates allowed

A List stores elements in insertion order and allows duplicate values.

import java.util.*; // List, ArrayList

public class ListDemo {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        List<String> names = new ArrayList<>();

        names.add("Alice");
        names.add("Bob");
        names.add("Alice");   // duplicate allowed

        for (String n : names) {
            System.out.println(n);
        }
    }
}

Common List Methods

names.add("Charlie");
names.remove("Bob");
names.get(0);
names.size();
names.contains("Alice");

ArrayList vs LinkedList

Set – unique elements

A Set stores unique elements and automatically removes duplicates.

import java.util.*; // HashSet

public class SetDemo {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        Set<Integer> primes = new HashSet<>();

        primes.add(2);
        primes.add(3);
        primes.add(2);  // ignored – duplicate

        System.out.println(primes);
    }
}

HashSet vs TreeSet

Map – key/value pairs

A Map stores data as key-value pairs.

import java.util.*; // Map, HashMap

public class MapDemo {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        Map<String, Integer> scores = new HashMap<>();

        scores.put("Alice", 90);
        scores.put("Bob", 85);
        scores.put("Alice", 95); // overwrites previous

        System.out.println(scores);
    }
}

Common Map Methods

scores.put("Charlie", 88);
scores.get("Alice");
scores.remove("Bob");
scores.containsKey("Alice");
scores.containsValue(95);

HashMap vs TreeMap

Iterating Through Collections

Collections can be traversed using loops or iterators.

for (String name : names) {
    System.out.println(name);
}

Enhanced for-loops are cleaner and easier to read.

Sorting Collections

The Collections utility class provides sorting methods.

Collections.sort(names);

You can also sort in reverse order:

Collections.sort(names, Collections.reverseOrder());

Queue Interface

A Queue processes elements in FIFO (First In First Out) order.

Queue<Integer> queue = new LinkedList<>();

queue.add(10);
queue.add(20);

System.out.println(queue.poll());

poll() removes and returns the first element.

Collections Utility Class

The Collections class provides useful helper methods.

Collections.max(numbers);
Collections.min(numbers);
Collections.shuffle(numbers);

Common Beginner Mistakes

• Using raw collections without generics
• Choosing the wrong collection type
• Forgetting that Sets remove duplicates
• Accessing invalid indexes in Lists
• Confusing HashMap ordering behavior

Generics

Introduction to Generics

Generics are one of Java’s most powerful features. They allow classes, interfaces, and methods to work with different data types while maintaining type safety.

Before Generics were introduced in Java 5, developers had to store objects using the Object class, which required manual casting and increased the chance of runtime errors.

Why Generics?

They let you write type-safe collections and APIs without casting.

• Improves code reusability
• Eliminates unnecessary type casting
• Provides compile-time type checking
• Makes code cleaner and easier to maintain
• Used heavily in the Collections Framework

Problem Without Generics

Before Generics, collections stored data as Object types.

import java.util.*;

public class WithoutGenerics {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        ArrayList list = new ArrayList();

        list.add("Hello");
        list.add(100);

        String text = (String) list.get(0);

        System.out.println(text);
    }
}

This approach is unsafe because incorrect casting can cause runtime exceptions.

Using Generics Properly

With Generics, you specify the exact type of data allowed.

import java.util.*;

public class GenericList {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        ArrayList<String> names = new ArrayList<>();

        names.add("Alice");
        names.add("Bob");

        String first = names.get(0);

        System.out.println(first);
    }
}

Now Java automatically ensures only String values can be stored.

Generic Type Parameters

Generic classes use placeholder type names inside angle brackets <>.

Simple generic class

public class Box<T> {

    private T value;

    public Box(T value) {
        this.value = value;
    }

    public T get() {
        return value;
    }

    public void set(T value) {
        this.value = value;
    }
}

Creating Generic Objects

Box<String> textBox = new Box<>("Hello");
Box<Integer> numberBox = new Box<>(100);

System.out.println(textBox.get());
System.out.println(numberBox.get());

The same class works with multiple data types.

Generic Methods

Methods can also use Generics independently of the class.

public class GenericMethod {

    public static <T>
    void printData(T value) {

        System.out.println(value);
    }

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        printData("Java");
        printData(500);
        printData(3.14);
    }
}

Using bounded type parameters

Restrict a type to subclasses of a given class or interface.

public class NumberUtils {

    public static <T extends Number>
    double sum(List<T> list) {

        double total = 0;

        for (T n : list) {
            total += n.doubleValue();
        }

        return total;
    }
}

This method only accepts numeric types such as Integer, Double, or Float.

Wildcards in Generics

Wildcards make Generics more flexible.

List<?> items;

The ? symbol means “unknown type”.

Generic Interfaces

Interfaces can also use Generics.

interface Storage<T> {
    void save(T item);
    T load();
}

Type Erasure

Java implements Generics using a concept called Type Erasure.

During compilation, generic type information is removed and converted into regular Java bytecode. This means Generics provide compile-time safety but do not exist at runtime.

Common Beginner Mistakes

• Using raw types instead of generic types
• Forgetting angle brackets <>
• Using incorrect type parameters
• Mixing incompatible generic types
• Assuming Generics exist at runtime

Real-World Usage of Generics

Generics are heavily used throughout modern Java development.

• Collections Framework
• Spring Boot applications
• REST APIs
• Database frameworks like Hibernate
• Reusable utility libraries

Streams & Lambdas (Java 8+)

Introduction to Functional Programming in Java

Java 8 introduced one of the biggest upgrades in Java history: Lambda Expressions and the Stream API. These features allow developers to write cleaner, shorter, and more expressive code using a functional programming style.

Instead of manually writing loops and temporary variables, Streams allow operations such as filtering, mapping, sorting, and collecting data in a concise pipeline.

What is a Lambda Expression?

A lambda expression is an anonymous function that can be passed as data.

It allows you to write compact code without creating separate classes for simple operations.

Lambda syntax

A lambda expression is an anonymous function that can be treated as an instance of a functional interface.

import java.util.function.*;

public class LambdaDemo {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        Predicate<Integer> isEven = n -> n % 2 == 0;

        System.out.println(
            isEven.test(42)
        ); // true
    }
}

Understanding Lambda Structure

(parameters) -> expression

More Lambda Examples

() -> System.out.println("Hello")

x -> x * x

(a, b) -> a + b

Lambdas become especially powerful when combined with collections and streams.

Functional Interfaces

A lambda expression works with a functional interface, which is an interface containing only one abstract method.

@FunctionalInterface
interface Calculator {
    int operate(int a, int b);
}

You can then provide implementations using lambdas:

Calculator add = (a, b) -> a + b;

System.out.println(add.operate(5, 3));

Common Built-in Functional Interfaces

What is the Stream API?

The Stream API processes collections of data in a declarative and functional way.

Streams do not store data themselves — they operate on existing collections like lists and sets.

Stream pipeline

Streams enable functional-style processing of sequences of elements.

import java.util.stream.*;
import java.util.*;

public class StreamDemo {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        List<Integer> numbers = Arrays.asList(
            1, 2, 3, 4, 5
        );

        int sum = numbers.stream()
                           .filter(n -> n % 2 == 0)
                           .mapToInt(n -> n * n)
                           .sum();

        System.out.println(
            "Result = " + sum
        );
    }
}

Understanding Stream Operations

Filtering Data

List<Integer> nums = Arrays.asList(1,2,3,4,5,6);

nums.stream()
    .filter(n -> n % 2 == 0)
    .forEach(System.out::println);

The filter() method keeps only matching elements.

Mapping Data

The map() method transforms each element.

names.stream()
     .map(String::toUpperCase)
     .forEach(System.out::println);

Sorting Streams

numbers.stream()
       .sorted()
       .forEach(System.out::println);

You can also use custom comparators with lambdas.

numbers.stream()
       .sorted((a, b) -> b - a)
       .forEach(System.out::println);

Collecting Results

The collect() method converts stream results into collections.

List<String> result = names.stream()
                           .map(String::toUpperCase)
                           .collect(Collectors.toList());

Method References

Method references are a shorter form of lambdas.

names.forEach(System.out::println);

This is equivalent to:

names.forEach(name -> System.out.println(name));

Stream Pipeline Stages

A stream pipeline usually has three stages:

1. Source → collection or array
2. Intermediate operations → filter, map, sorted
3. Terminal operation → collect, sum, forEach

Advantages of Streams

• Cleaner and shorter code
• Less manual looping
• Easier data transformations
• Supports parallel processing
• Improved readability

Parallel Streams

Java can process streams in parallel using multiple CPU cores.

numbers.parallelStream()
       .forEach(System.out::println);

Common Beginner Mistakes

• Trying to reuse a stream after a terminal operation
• Using streams for extremely simple tasks unnecessarily
• Confusing map() with filter()
• Overusing parallel streams
• Writing overly complex lambda expressions

Real-World Usage

Streams and Lambdas are heavily used in modern Java applications.

• Spring Boot applications
• REST APIs
• Data processing systems
• Backend enterprise software
• Big-data pipelines

Exception Handling

Checked vs Unchecked

• Checked – compiler forces you to handle or declare (IOException, SQLException).
• Unchecked – subclasses of RuntimeException (e.g. NullPointerException) need not be declared.

Try‑catch‑finally

import java.io.*;

public class ExceptionDemo {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        try {
            BufferedReader br = new BufferedReader(new FileReader("missing.txt"));
            System.out.println(br.readLine());
        } catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
            System.err.println("File not found!");
        } catch (IOException e) {
            e.printStackTrace();
        } finally {
            System.out.println("Cleanup if necessary");
        }
    }
}

Custom exception

public class InvalidAgeException extends Exception {
    public InvalidAgeException(String message) {
        super(message);
    }
}

Concurrency

Threads basics

Two ways to create a thread:

1. Extend Thread and override run().
2. Implement Runnable (or Callable) and pass it to a Thread or an ExecutorService.

class MyTask implements Runnable {
    public void run() {
        for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
            System.out.println("Thread " + Thread.currentThread().getName() + ": " + i);
            try { Thread.sleep(500); } catch (InterruptedException e) { }
        }
    }
}

public class ThreadDemo {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        Thread t1 = new Thread(new MyTask(), "Worker‑1");
        Thread t2 = new Thread(new MyTask(), "Worker‑2");
        t1.start();
        t2.start();
    }
}

Executor framework

Higher‑level API for managing thread pools.

import java.util.concurrent.*;

public class ExecutorDemo {
    public static void main(String[] args) {
        ExecutorService pool = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(3);
        for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
            int id = i;
            pool.submit(() -> {
                System.out.println("Task " + id + " executed by " + Thread.currentThread().getName());
            });
        }
        pool.shutdown();
    }
}

Java Swing GUI Development

Why Use Swing?

• Create desktop applications.
• Build forms and data-entry systems.
• Create calculators and management systems.
• Develop educational software.
• Build database-driven applications.

Common Swing Components

Your First Swing Program

import javax.swing.*;

public class Main {
    public static void main(String[] args) {

        JFrame frame = new JFrame("My First Window");

        frame.setSize(500, 300);
        frame.setDefaultCloseOperation(JFrame.EXIT_ON_CLOSE);
        frame.setVisible(true);
    }
}

Understanding JFrame

Adding a Label

import javax.swing.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        JFrame frame = new JFrame();

        JLabel label =
            new JLabel("Welcome to Swing");

        frame.add(label);

        frame.setSize(400,200);
        frame.setVisible(true);
    }
}

Creating a Button

import javax.swing.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        JFrame frame = new JFrame();

        JButton btn =
            new JButton("Click Me");

        frame.add(btn);

        frame.setSize(400,200);
        frame.setVisible(true);
    }
}

Event Handling

Event handling allows Swing applications to react when users click buttons, type text, select menu items, or interact with components.

import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.event.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        JFrame frame = new JFrame();

        JButton btn =
            new JButton("Click");

        btn.addActionListener(
            new ActionListener() {

                public void actionPerformed(
                        ActionEvent e) {

                    JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(
                        null,
                        "Button Clicked!"
                    );
                }
            });

        frame.add(btn);

        frame.setSize(400,200);
        frame.setVisible(true);
    }
}

JTextField Example

import javax.swing.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        JFrame frame = new JFrame();

        JTextField txt =
            new JTextField();

        txt.setBounds(50,50,200,30);

        frame.add(txt);

        frame.setLayout(null);
        frame.setSize(400,300);
        frame.setVisible(true);
    }
}

Layouts

Layout Managers automatically position components.

FlowLayout Example

import javax.swing.*;
import java.awt.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args) {

        JFrame frame = new JFrame();

        frame.setLayout(new FlowLayout());

        frame.add(new JButton("One"));
        frame.add(new JButton("Two"));
        frame.add(new JButton("Three"));

        frame.setSize(400,200);
        frame.setVisible(true);
    }
}

JCheckBox Example

JCheckBox java =
    new JCheckBox("Java");

JCheckBox python =
    new JCheckBox("Python");

frame.add(java);
frame.add(python);

JRadioButton Example

JRadioButton male =
    new JRadioButton("Male");

JRadioButton female =
    new JRadioButton("Female");

ButtonGroup group =
    new ButtonGroup();

group.add(male);
group.add(female);

JComboBox Example

String[] countries = {
    "India",
    "Zimbabwe",
    "South Africa"
};

JComboBox box =
    new JComboBox(countries);

frame.add(box);

JTextArea Example

JTextArea area =
    new JTextArea();

frame.add(area);

Message Dialogs

JOptionPane.showMessageDialog(
    null,
    "Operation Successful"
);

Input Dialog

String name =
    JOptionPane.showInputDialog(
        "Enter Name"
    );

Confirm Dialog

int result =
    JOptionPane.showConfirmDialog(
        null,
        "Delete Record?"
    );

Menu Bar Example

JMenuBar menuBar =
    new JMenuBar();

JMenu file =
    new JMenu("File");

JMenuItem exit =
    new JMenuItem("Exit");

file.add(exit);
menuBar.add(file);

frame.setJMenuBar(menuBar);

Building a Login Form

JLabel user =
    new JLabel("Username");

JTextField txtUser =
    new JTextField();

JLabel pass =
    new JLabel("Password");

JPasswordField txtPass =
    new JPasswordField();

JButton login =
    new JButton("Login");

Interfaces & Abstract Classes

What is an Abstract Class?

An abstract class is a class that cannot be instantiated directly. It serves as a blueprint for other classes.

Abstract Method

An abstract method has no body and must be implemented by subclasses.

abstract class Animal {
    abstract void makeSound();
}

Example: Abstract Class

abstract class Animal {

    abstract void makeSound();

    void sleep() {
        System.out.println("Sleeping...");
    }
}

class Dog extends Animal {

    void makeSound() {
        System.out.println("Bark");
    }
}

public class Main {
    public static void main(String[] args) {

        Dog d = new Dog();

        d.makeSound();
        d.sleep();
    }
}

Output

Bark
Sleeping...

What is an Interface?

An interface is a completely abstract blueprint that defines what a class must do without specifying how it does it.

Creating an Interface

interface Vehicle {
    void start();
}

Implementing an Interface

interface Vehicle {
    void start();
}

class Car implements Vehicle {

    public void start() {
        System.out.println("Car Started");
    }
}

public class Main {
    public static void main(String[] args) {

        Car c = new Car();
        c.start();
    }
}

Output

Car Started

Multiple Interface Implementation

A class can implement multiple interfaces, which helps achieve multiple inheritance.

interface Camera {
    void takePhoto();
}

interface MusicPlayer {
    void playMusic();
}

class Smartphone implements Camera, MusicPlayer {

    public void takePhoto() {
        System.out.println("Photo Taken");
    }

    public void playMusic() {
        System.out.println("Playing Music");
    }
}

Abstract Class vs Interface

When to Use an Abstract Class

• When classes share common code.
• When you want partial implementation.
• When subclasses should inherit state and behavior.

When to Use an Interface

• When unrelated classes need common behavior.
• When multiple inheritance is required.
• When defining a contract for classes.

Enums & Annotations

Content coming soon...

File I/O & NIO

Why File Handling?

• Store data permanently.
• Read configuration files.
• Save application settings.
• Create logs and reports.
• Process large datasets.

Java File Class

The File class represents files and directories.

import java.io.File;

public class Main {
    public static void main(String[] args) {

        File file = new File("student.txt");

        System.out.println(file.exists());
    }
}

Creating a File

import java.io.File;
import java.io.IOException;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws IOException {

        File file =
            new File("data.txt");

        if(file.createNewFile()) {
            System.out.println("File Created");
        } else {
            System.out.println("Already Exists");
        }
    }
}

Writing to a File (FileWriter)

import java.io.FileWriter;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws Exception {

        FileWriter writer =
            new FileWriter("notes.txt");

        writer.write("Hello Java!");

        writer.close();

        System.out.println("Written Successfully");
    }
}

Appending Data

FileWriter writer =
    new FileWriter("notes.txt", true);

writer.write("\nNew Line Added");

writer.close();

Reading Files (Scanner)

import java.io.File;
import java.util.Scanner;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws Exception {

        File file =
            new File("notes.txt");

        Scanner sc =
            new Scanner(file);

        while(sc.hasNextLine()) {
            System.out.println(sc.nextLine());
        }

        sc.close();
    }
}

BufferedWriter

BufferedWriter improves performance by reducing disk access.

import java.io.*;

BufferedWriter writer =
    new BufferedWriter(
        new FileWriter("data.txt")
    );

writer.write("Fast Writing");

writer.close();

BufferedReader

import java.io.*;

BufferedReader reader =
    new BufferedReader(
        new FileReader("data.txt")
    );

String line;

while((line = reader.readLine()) != null) {
    System.out.println(line);
}

reader.close();

Binary Files

Binary files store raw bytes instead of text.

FileOutputStream

import java.io.*;

FileOutputStream out =
    new FileOutputStream("file.bin");

out.write(65);

out.close();

FileInputStream

import java.io.*;

FileInputStream in =
    new FileInputStream("file.bin");

int data = in.read();

System.out.println(data);

in.close();

Introduction to NIO

Important NIO Classes

Creating a Path

import java.nio.file.*;

Path path =
    Paths.get("data.txt");

System.out.println(path);

Writing Files with NIO

import java.nio.file.*;
import java.util.*;

Path path =
    Paths.get("data.txt");

Files.write(
    path,
    Arrays.asList(
        "Java",
        "Python",
        "C++"
    )
);

Reading Files with NIO

import java.nio.file.*;
import java.util.*;

Path path =
    Paths.get("data.txt");

List<String> lines =
    Files.readAllLines(path);

for(String line : lines) {
    System.out.println(line);
}

Copying Files

Path source =
    Paths.get("source.txt");

Path target =
    Paths.get("backup.txt");

Files.copy(
    source,
    target
);

Moving Files

Files.move(
    Paths.get("old.txt"),
    Paths.get("new.txt")
);

Deleting Files

Files.delete(
    Paths.get("temp.txt")
);

Creating Directories

Files.createDirectory(
    Paths.get("Students")
);

Exception Handling Example

try {

    Files.delete(
        Paths.get("data.txt")
    );

} catch(IOException e) {

    System.out.println(
        "Error: " + e.getMessage()
    );
}

File I/O vs NIO

Try-With-Resources Example

try(BufferedReader reader =
        new BufferedReader(
            new FileReader("data.txt"))) {

    String line;

    while((line = reader.readLine()) != null) {
        System.out.println(line);
    }

} catch(IOException e) {
    e.printStackTrace();
}

Networking & Sockets

What is Networking?

Networking is the process of exchanging data between computers or devices. Java supports networking through the java.net package.

Common Networking Terms

What is a Socket?

A socket is a communication endpoint that allows two programs to exchange data over a network.

Important Networking Classes

Getting Local Host Information

import java.net.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws Exception {

        InetAddress ip =
            InetAddress.getLocalHost();

        System.out.println(ip);
        System.out.println(ip.getHostName());
        System.out.println(ip.getHostAddress());
    }
}

Getting Website IP Address

import java.net.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws Exception {

        InetAddress ip =
            InetAddress.getByName("google.com");

        System.out.println(ip);
    }
}

Client-Server Architecture

Creating a Server

import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;

public class Server {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws Exception {

        ServerSocket server =
            new ServerSocket(5000);

        System.out.println("Server Started");

        Socket socket =
            server.accept();

        System.out.println("Client Connected");

        server.close();
    }
}

Creating a Client

import java.net.*;

public class Client {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws Exception {

        Socket socket =
            new Socket("localhost", 5000);

        System.out.println(
            "Connected to Server"
        );

        socket.close();
    }
}

Sending Data from Client

PrintWriter out =
    new PrintWriter(
        socket.getOutputStream(),
        true
    );

out.println("Hello Server");

Receiving Data on Server

BufferedReader in =
    new BufferedReader(
        new InputStreamReader(
            socket.getInputStream()
        )
    );

String message =
    in.readLine();

System.out.println(message);

Simple Chat Example

// Client sends
out.println("Hello!");

// Server receives
String msg = in.readLine();
System.out.println(msg);

Reading Data from a URL

import java.net.*;
import java.io.*;

public class Main {

    public static void main(String[] args)
            throws Exception {

        URL url =
            new URL(
                "https://example.com"
            );

        BufferedReader reader =
            new BufferedReader(
                new InputStreamReader(
                    url.openStream()
                )
            );

        String line;

        while((line = reader.readLine())
                != null) {

            System.out.println(line);
        }

        reader.close();
    }
}

UDP vs TCP

Creating a UDP Socket

import java.net.*;

DatagramSocket socket =
    new DatagramSocket();

Sending UDP Data

byte[] data =
    "Hello".getBytes();

InetAddress ip =
    InetAddress.getByName(
        "localhost"
    );

DatagramPacket packet =
    new DatagramPacket(
        data,
        data.length,
        ip,
        6000
    );

socket.send(packet);

Exception Handling

try {

    Socket socket =
        new Socket(
            "localhost",
            5000
        );

} catch(IOException e) {

    System.out.println(
        "Connection Failed"
    );
}

Real-World Applications

• Chat Applications
• Online Games
• File Sharing Systems
• Web Browsers
• Email Services
• Video Streaming Platforms
• Banking Systems

JDBC & Databases

Why Use Databases?

• Store data permanently.
• Manage large amounts of information efficiently.
• Perform searches and filtering using SQL.
• Support multi-user applications.
• Provide data security and integrity.

Steps to Connect Java with MySQL

Step 1: Import JDBC Package

import java.sql.*;

Step 2: Establish Connection

String url = "jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/school";
String username = "root";
String password = "";

Connection con =
    DriverManager.getConnection(url, username, password);

Step 3: Create Statement

Statement stmt = con.createStatement();

Step 4: Execute SQL Query

ResultSet rs =
    stmt.executeQuery("SELECT * FROM students");

Step 5: Process Results

while(rs.next()) {
    System.out.println(
        rs.getInt("id") + " " +
        rs.getString("name")
    );
}

Step 6: Close Resources

rs.close();
stmt.close();
con.close();

Complete Example

import java.sql.*;

public class JDBCExample {
    public static void main(String[] args) {

        try {
            String url =
                "jdbc:mysql://localhost:3306/school";

            Connection con =
                DriverManager.getConnection(
                    url, "root", ""
                );

            Statement stmt =
                con.createStatement();

            ResultSet rs =
                stmt.executeQuery(
                    "SELECT * FROM students"
                );

            while(rs.next()) {
                System.out.println(
                    rs.getInt("id") + " - " +
                    rs.getString("name")
                );
            }

            rs.close();
            stmt.close();
            con.close();

        } catch(Exception e) {
            System.out.println(e);
        }
    }
}

CRUD Operations

Insert Example

String sql =
    "INSERT INTO students(name) VALUES('John')";

stmt.executeUpdate(sql);

Update Example

String sql =
    "UPDATE students SET name='Mike' WHERE id=1";

stmt.executeUpdate(sql);

Delete Example

String sql =
    "DELETE FROM students WHERE id=1";

stmt.executeUpdate(sql);

PreparedStatement Example

String sql =
    "SELECT * FROM students WHERE id=?";

PreparedStatement ps =
    con.prepareStatement(sql);

ps.setInt(1, 5);

ResultSet rs = ps.executeQuery();

Unit Testing (JUnit)

Content coming soon...

Design Patterns

Content coming soon...

Build Tools (Maven & Gradle)

Content coming soon...

Introduction to Spring Boot

Content coming soon...

Final Project — Enterprise Java App

Content coming soon...